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Return to The Investigative Reporter's Handbook, 4th Edition



Table of Contents
PREFACE vii
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xiii
PART ONE — The Basics: How to Investigate Anyone or Anything
INTRODUCTION: PAPER TRAILS AND PEOPLE TRAILS: AN OVERVIEW
 3
Choosing a Subject for Investigation 4
The Research Hypothesis 4
The Outer Ring: Secondary Sources 5
Having a "Documents State of Mind" 5
Human Sources 6
Research Techniques 6
Organizing the Information, Writing and Rewriting 7
Thinking Through the Conventional Wisdom 8
The Paul Williams Way 9
     Step 1: Conception
     Step 2: Feasibility Study
     Step 3: Go-No Go Decision
     Step 4: Basebuilding
     Step 5: Planning
     Step 6: Original Research
     Step 7: Reevaluation
     Step 8: Filling the Gaps
     Step 9: Final Evaluation
     Step 10: Writing and Rewriting
     Step 11: Publication and Follow-up Stories
Using All These Procedures in the Real World 13
Pat Stith's Version of the Paul Williams Way 14
Books With Insight Into the Investigative Process 15
Chapter 1
SECONDARY SOURCES: WORKING FROM THE OUTSIDE IN
19
Using Newspapers 20
Broadcast and Cable Sources 23
Magazines and Newsletters 24
Reference Books 25
Dissertations and Theses 26
Books and Libraries 27
Secondary Sources on Databases 30
The Internet 31
Database Searching in the Real World of Journalism 32
Chapter 2
PRIMARY DOCUMENTS: OBTAINING THE BEST EVIDENCE
35
Primary Documents on Commercial Databases 37
The Government's Own Databases 38
The Three I's 39
BOX: The Social Security Number as Door Opener 41
Primary Documents as Entry Points 42
The Uniform Commercial Code 42
From UCC Filings to Tax Documents 43
Birth and Death Records 44
Depository Libraries 45
The National Archives System 47
BOX: Putting It All Together With Primary Sources 48
Chapter 3
COMPUTER-ASSISTED REPORTING
54
The Basic Tools of Computer-Assisted Reporting 55
BOX: George Landau on Software 55
CAR Training 56
Finding and Deciding on What Databases to Use 56
Databases to Have on Hand 58
     Demographic Data
     State Data Sources
     Local Data
Other Tips 65
     Federal
     State and Local
     Intranets
Building Your Own Database 65
BOX: Gaining Access 66
Chapter 4
CROSSING BORDERS: INTERNATIONAL INVESTIGATIONS
69
The World Wide Web 69
International Reporting at Home 70
BOX: International Coverage on a Hometown Budget 71
Starting Points 72
Networks of Journalists 73
Guides to Reporting 74
Specific Resources 75
The National Security Obstacle 78
Archives 79
BOX: Personal Papers and Oral Histories 79
Chapter 5
PEOPLE TRAILS: FINDING AND INTERVIEWING SOURCES
82
Locating and Interviewing Sources 82
Tools for Finding People 85
     Telephone Directories
     City Directories
     Workplace Directories
     Life Patterns, Common Sense and Documents
     Other Documents and Records
Whistle-Blowers 90
Outside Experts 91
BOX: Power Structures, Obvious and Obscure 93
Interviewing Those In and Out of Power 96
Interviewing 97
     The Research Stage
     Looking for Credentials Fraud in Résumés
     Getting Ready to Pop the Questions
BOX: Getting in the Door 100
     Asking the Questions, Dealing With the Answers
     Note Taking and Other Matters of Accuracy
PART TWO — Investigating Individuals, Institutions and Issues
Chapter 6
INVESTIGATING GOVERNMENT: THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH AND THOSE WHO TRY TO INFLUENCE IT
109
Following the Dollar 111
Campaign Finance Records 113
State and Local Coverage 114
BOX: The Many Pockets of a Politician's Coat 115
The World of Lobbyists 118
Financial Disclosures of Legislators 121
Resources and Perquisites in Office 123
Constituent Service and Reelection 125
From a Bill to a Law 125
Authorizations and Appropriations 127
Legislating Through Committees 128
Committees and the Function of Oversight 129
The Connection Between Legislating and Personal Character 130
Using Congressional Information for All Manner of Investigations 131
The Research Arms of the Legislature 132
Chapter 7
INVESTIGATING GOVERNMENT: THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH
136
Probing an Agency's Mission 137
Probabilities of Corruption 138
Uncovering Conflicts of Interest 140
Scrutinizing the Top Executive 142
Cabinet Secretaries and Regulatory Commissioners 144
The Permanent Bureaucracy 144
Public Affairs Personnel as a Gateway to the Bureaucracy 147
The Budget and Management Watchdog 149
Making Sense of Agency Budgets 150
Who Gets the Money, and How 152
The Contracting Process 154
     Informal Cost Estimates
     Notice of Bid
     Bid Specifications
     Requests for Proposals
     Product Preferences
     Minority Contracting Requirements
     Audit Requirements
     Bid and Performance Bonds
     Change Orders
Executive Branch Thievery 157
The Twilight Zones of Government: Public Authorities and Self-Regulatory Organizations 159
Inspectors General 160
BOX: Using the Federal Register 162
Chapter 8
INVESTIGATING GOVERNMENT: EDUCATION
166
Visiting the Schools 167
Covering Compulsory Education Versus Higher Education 168
Local Education 169
     Student Test Scores
     School Violence and Discipline of Students
     Student Retention
     Teacher and Administrator Competency
     Instructional Materials, Tracking and Class Sizes
     Special-Needs Students
     Desegregation, Multiculturalism and Gender Equity
     School Choice
     Nonteaching Employees
     School Buildings
Who Pays for Education? 185
BOX: Private Schools 187
Home Schooling 188
Higher Education 188
     Crime on Campus
     The Big Picture
     University Revenues and Expenditures
     Students
     Faculty
     Support Staff
     Administrators
     Governing Boards
     Accreditation Documents as a Source of Information
Chapter 9
INVESTIGATING GOVERNMENT: LAW ENFORCEMENT
203
Monitoring Individual Law Enforcement Officers 206
Recruitment 207
Police Academy Training 208
Raises and Promotions 210
The Top Command 211
Discipline of Wayward Law Enforcement Officers 213
BOX: Edna Buchanan's Tips 216
Evaluating an Agency: Preventing and Investigating Crimes 217
     Murder
     Juvenile Criminals
     Rape
     Domestic Violence
     Narcotics
     Vice
     Organized Crime and White-Collar Crime
     Missing Persons
     Stolen Property
     Arson
     Bombings
     Traffic Patrol
Canine (K9) Corps 237
Civil Rights and Community Relations 238
Process Servers and Fugitives 238
Evidence Rooms 239
Crime Site Technicians, Crime Laboratories 240
Patrol Officers, Dispatchers and 911 Operators 240
Records Divisions and Public Information Officers 243
The Meaning of Crime Statistics 243
Law Enforcement Budgets 245
People Trails 245
Paper Trails 247
Chapter 10
INVESTIGATING GOVERNMENT: THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM
249
The Judicial System as a Political System 251
Corruption in the Courts 253
Between Arrest and First Court Appearance 254
Making Bail 255
Initial Appearance in Court 257
Pretrial Hearings 259
Assigning Cases to Judges 259
Investigating Judges 260
Investigating Prosecutors 263
Investigating Defense Attorneys 265
Choosing a Jury 267
The Trial 270
BOX: Wrongful Convictions 273
The Victims of Crime 275
Sentencing 276
Appeals 279
Probation, Parole, Commutations and Pardons 282
Prisons 284
Juvenile Cases 290
Civil Cases 294
Specialized Courts 297
     Traffic Court
     Municipal Court
     Divorce Court
     Probate Court
     Small Claims Court
     U.S. Tax Court
     U.S. Bankruptcy Court
     U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit
     U.S. Military Courts
Court Budgets, Court Operations 305
Using Courts for Other Stories 306
Chapter 11
WHERE GOVERNMENT AND PRIVATE SECTOR MEET: INVESTIGATING LICENSED PROFESSIONALS
309
Licensing as a Window Into the World of Professionals 310
Uncovering Individual Fraud or Misconduct 310
The Process 312
     Step 1: Licensing
     Step 2: Performance Standards
     Step 3: Complaints and Investigations
Professional Associations as Sources 315
Investigating the Protectors 316
Chapter 12
INVESTIGATING THE PRIVATE SECTOR: FOR-PROFIT BUSINESSES AND THEIR WORKERS
319
Investigating a Takeover: One Prototype 320
Companies Whose Stock Is Traded Publicly 322
Other SEC Documents 323
Resources Outside the SEC 324
     Federal Agencies
     State and Local Agencies
Pulling It Together on the Paper Trail 328
Human Sources 330
Management-Worker Relations 332
Labor Unions 333
Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration 336
Safety and Health in the Workplace 337
Wage Enforcement 340
Pension, Health and Welfare Plans for Workers 342
State Employment Security Divisions 343
Labor Lawyers and the Courts 345
BOX: The Mintz Way 346
Chapter 13
INVESTIGATING CHARITIES AND OTHER NONPROFITS
351
BOX: Beyond the Bottom Line 354
The Bottom Line of Charities 357
Foundations 361
Fund-raising Techniques and Conundrums 362
Federal, State and Local Government Regulation 364
BOX: Summing Up: Boys Town and the Sun Newspapers 365
Chapter 14
INVESTIGATING HEALTH CARE
367
Hospitals 368
Veterans Administration Hospitals 375
Emergency Medical Services 376
Health Maintenance Organizations 377
Nursing Homes 378
Mental Health Institutions 381
Home Health Care Companies 383
Medical Laboratories 383
Blood Banks 384
Drug Companies 385
Pharmacies 386
Medical Device Companies 387
Individual Health Care Providers 387
BOX: General Reference Sources 390

Chapter 15
INVESTIGATING INSURANCE

392
Investigating the Sellers: Insurance Companies and Agents 393
     Finances
     Looking at the Agents
Health and Disability Insurance 397
BOX: Crashing for Cash 399
Life Insurance 401
Automobile Insurance 401
Investigating Homeowners' and Other Property Insurance 403
Investigating Commercial and Professional Insurance Policies 404
Investigating the Regulators: State Insurance Commissioners 405
Investigating the Government as Insurer 406
     Medicare
     Medicaid
     Workers' Compensation
Insurance Sources to Use Over and Over 414
Chapter 16
INVESTIGATING FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS: BANKS, SAVINGS AND LOANS, CREDIT UNIONS, INVESTMENT COMPANIES AND THEIR MUTUAL FUNDS
416
Government Regulators as Sources of Information 417
Banks 418
Savings and Loans 421
Credit Unions 422
Credit Cards 423
Farm Credit Banks 423
Mutual Funds and Other Investment Company Products 424
Redlining by All Types of Financial Institutions 425
Insider Transactions 428
High-Risk Transactions 428
BOX: Money Laundering 429
Chapter 17
INVESTIGATING ENERGY AND COMMUNICATIONS UTILITIES
432
Heating and Cooling Utilities 438
BOX: Nuclear Power Plants 440
Water Utilities 441
Polluting the Environment 442
Cultural and Property Value Impact 444
Communications Utilities 444
Cable Systems 445
Chapter 18
INVESTIGATING TRANSPORTATION
449
Aviation Safety 451
     Pilots
     Air Controllers and On-the-Ground Problems
     Drugs and Alcohol
     Following an Investigation
Land Transportation 458
     Cars
     Driver's Licenses and Inspections
     Trucks
     Buses
     Taxis and Limousine Services
     Railroads
     Hazardous Waste
     Mass Transit
Water Transportation 465
     Commercial Shipping
     Boating Accidents
Other Transportation Investigations 468
Chapter 19
INVESTIGATING REAL ESTATE: HOUSING, COMMERCIAL USES AND ZONING
471
Who Owns the Land? 474
How Much Is the Land Worth? 478
BOX: Landlords and Tenants 479
Changing How the Land Is Used: Zoning and Rezoning 481
Low-Income Housing and Homelessness 484
Land and Housing Fraud 486
Chapter 20
INVESTIGATING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
488
Government Regulation of the Environment 489
Air Pollution 493
Water Pollution 494
Soil Pollution 496
BOX: Paper Trails, Databases and Human Sources 499
Chapter 21
INVESTIGATING THE WORLD OF THE DISADVANTAGED
502
Documenting the World of Poverty 509
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families 510
Child-Support Enforcement 511
Food Stamps 512
Child and Family Nutrition Programs Other Than Food Stamps 513
BOX: The Never-Ending Bureaucracy 514
Children and Families 515
PART THREE — Putting It All Together
Chapter 22
WRITING COMPELLING PROJECTS
521
Getting the Details While Reporting 525
Avoiding Stereotypes While Collecting Details 526
Writing From an Outline, a Chronology or Both 527
Tension and Resolution 528
Leads: The Opening Sentences 529
Middles: Flow and Momentum 531
Finding the Appropriate Point of View and Tone 534
Endings 535
BOX: Story Structures 536
Literary Journalism as a Discipline 537
Chapter 23
THE ETHICS AND ACCURACY OF INVESTIGATIVE JOURNALISM
538
Obtaining Information Covertly 538
Ambush Interviews 539
Exposing Private Behaviors of Public Figures 540
Unidentified Sources 540
The Golden Rule 541
Fairness, Accuracy and the Law 542
BOX: Prepublication Review 543
The Line-by-Line Accuracy Check 544
BIBLIOGRAPHY 547
INDEX 561